Simultaneous Development of Philately, Geology, and Palaeontology as a Result of the British Industrial Revolution

Part 5: The Release of the First Postage Stamps

The Penny Black

The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the "Penny Black", prepaid letter sheets and envelopes, known as "Mulready postal stationery", went on sale in London on May 1^st 1840, but were not valid until May 6^th. The extra five days were required to print enough stamps and deliver them to all Post Offices of the kingdom. Even though the stamps were supposed to be accepted for postage on May 6^th, there is some evidence that a few covers were sent earlier starting on May 2^nd.

The "Penny Black" stamp was printed in shades of black: intense black (from brand new plates), black (the most common shade), and grey-black (from worn plates). Some sellers and publications also recognize a fourth variation - grey produced from very worn plates. The stamp prepaid postage for letters weighing less than half an ounce (14g) to any destination within the United Kingdom.

Colour shades of the "Penny Black":
Intense Black (MiNr: 1a, Scott: 1a, SG: 1), Black (MiNr: 1b, Scott: 1, SG: 2), Grey-Black (MiNr: 1c, Scott: 1b, SG: 3) and Grey (MiNr: 1c, Scott: 1b, SG: 3). The first three stamps were printed using Plate 2, while the fourth stamp was printed using a worn Plate 1a.

The Penny Blue

The "Two Pence Blue" (sometimes called "Two Penny Blue", "Twopenny Stamp" or just "Two Pence") stamp was originally scheduled to go on sale on May 6^th and to be valid for postage from the same day. However, its production was delayed, and the first "Two Penny Blue" stamps did not reach post offices until May 8^th 1840, making it the second stamp in the world, (Some stamp catalogues, however, list May 6^th, 1840 as the official issue date for both Penny and Two Penny stamps). Apart from the denomination, the design of both stamps was exactly the same.

Shade Name	Stanley Gibbons	MICHEL
deep full blue	DS1		N/A
violet-blue	DS2	2e	violettblau
milky-blue	DS3	2f	milchblau
steel-blue	DS4	2g	mattgraublau
blue	DS5 - plate No. 1, DS8 - plate No. 2	2b	blau
pale-blue	DS6 - plate No. 1, DS9 - plate No. 2	2c	mattblau
bright-blue	DS6A	2d	lebhaftblau
deep-blue	DS7	2a	dunkelblau

Similar to the “Penny Black”, the "Two Pence Blue" stamp was printed in different shades of blue:
"deep full blue", "blue", "pale-blue", "milky blue", "steel-blue", "bright-blue", "deep-blue", and "violet-blue".
The first three color-shades have their own numbers: SG: 4 - 6 respectively and are listed in all Stanley Gibbons catalogues.
All eight shades are listed as color-variants in "GB Specialised Volume 1 Part 1 'Queen Victoria' Stamp Catalogue" (1^st Edition), published by Stanley Gibbons in 2020, under numbers DS1-DS9.
MICHEL "Großbritannien-Spezial 2022/2023" published by Schwaneberger Verlag in Germering in 2022, lists seven color-shades of the stamp - "deep full blue" is not listed there.
In the case of the “Penny Black” you might be able to distinguish intense-black from black and grey with the naked eye, but it might be difficult to distinguish between different shades of blue without the help of a colour identifier.

In addition to the general issue, it was required by the Treasury, to produce separate stamps for official and government business. These were originally intended to be distinguished from public stamps by colour.
However, it was later decided to use the same design as the public stamps, replacing the corner crosses with the letters VR (Victoria Regina). Although they were intended to correspond to the same two denominations as the public stamps, only the "Penny Black VR" stamps were prepared for official use.

"Penny Black VR", MiNr: I, Scott: O1, SG: V1. Image credit: Wikimedia.

The circular of the General Post Office from May 7^th, 1840 to all postmasters explained: ... I also enclose, for your information, two Specimens of the Label Stamp bearing the Letters V.R. at the upper corners, which are to be applied to the correspondence of Public Departments, and other Persons formerly enjoying the privilege of Official Franking. This latter Specimen of the Label Stamp is merely sent to prevent, when it may come into use, any misapprehension arising from the Letters V.R. which are intended to denote that the Stamp is employed for Official Correspondence...
These Penny Black VR stamps were never distributed to the government departments for which they were intended, because the general public quickly accepted the postage stamps and ridiculed the "Mulready postal stationery" issued at the same time. Vast supplies of Mulready envelopes and letter sheets were instead given for official use to government departments, such as the tax office. As a result, the idea of introducing an official stamp was abandoned. Almost all of the produced stamps were destroyed on January 25^th 1843, and only a very few Penny Black VR stamps have survived to the present day.

The "public" stamps were printed imperforate on greyish white paper, hand made by Stacey Wise, because the perforation machine had not been invented yet. The post clerk needed to separate them using scissors or knives. Such separating method was crude and resulted in many stamps being damaged. Due to the fact the distance between two stamps was very small, it was very difficult to cut it with good margins. Today, stamps with straight and wide margins are most valued.

The first two adhesive postage stamps introduced by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in May 1840 ("Penny Black" and "Two Pence Blue") for the prepayment of postage and the postmark designed to cancel/"destroy" them, became known by collectors of Great Britain's Postal History, as the "Maltese Cross".
"Penny Black" - the first stamp in the world (plate 2), MiNr: 1b, Scott: 1, SG: 2 (black colour).	"Two Pence Blue" - the second stamp in the world (plate 1), MiNr: 2, Scott: 2, SG: 5 (bright-blue colour).	Red Maltese Cross cancelation mark (obliterator) - was available in many shapes.

The notice to the public dated 7^th May 1840, sent by William Leader Maberly, the Secretary of the General Post Office in London explained how to use the adhesive postage stamps, requesting that if adhesive stamps are used they be placed on the front in the upper right corner:
In those cases where Adhesive Stamps are used, it is requested that they may be placed on the Front of the Letter and upon the right hand corner on the upper side. Should this direction not be attended to, from the rapidity with which the duty must be performed. Letters which bear Stamps will frequently be taxed, while the Parties receiving them will be put to much trouble in obtaining a return of the Postage improperly charged.

Maltese Cross

To prevent reuse of these stamps, the General Post Office designed a cancellation mark to obliterate them.

Basic components of Maltese Cross obliterator.
Maltese Cross - the symbol of the Knights of the Order of Malta.	The Tudor rose - the traditional floral heraldic emblem of England.
Letter sheet sent from Gosport to Alton, Hampshire, posted on 10th July 1840. Franked with a Penny Black from plate 2, cancelled by a red Maltese Cross.

When describing the postmarks of the nineteenth century, the word 'obliteration' is synonymous with 'cancellation' - because, of course, that was what they were designed to do - to 'obliterate' the stamp in such a way as to prevent any opportunity for reuse.
_{Stanley Gibbons "Commonwealth and British Empire Stamps 1840 -1970" catalogue, 2025 edition.}

The earliest record of the proposed design of the cancellation mark is a Post Office Memo written by William Bokenham, who was Superintending President of the Inland Office, to Col. William Leader Maberly, who was Appointed Secretary to the General Post Office, dated March 31^st.
The note contains three impressions in red ink of the cancellation mark. The design of this cancel mark includes three basic components: outer cross, inner cross and the diamond.
This cancellation mark became known by collectors of Great Britain's Postal History, as the "Maltese Cross".

"Maltese Cross", the mis-named, term became widely used by the end of the 19^th century, even though the postmark has nothing to do with the heraldic symbol of the Knights of the Order of Malta (also known as the Knights Hospitaller). The shape of the cancellation mark might resemble the shape of the "Tudor rose" (shown on the right) - the traditional floral heraldic emblem of England. However, due to the fact, that the origin of the design of "Maltese Cross" is not known, it is also unknown if the "Tudor rose" was used as a design source of the cancellation mark.

The handstamp was cut in brass, mass produced in London, and distributed to postmasters starting on April 25^th, 1840, but when worn, or broken, some postmasters preferred to order the replacement from local masters, rather than wait for delivery from London. This practice caused many variants of the shapes and thickness of the lines of the cancelation mark.

"GB Specialised Volume 1 Part 1 'Queen Victoria' Stamp Catalogue (1^st Edition)", published by Stanley Gibbons in 2020, shows 41 different designs of “Maltese Cross” cancellation marks.

The red ink, was selected by the General Post Office in London, who rather than producing and distributing it, sent instructions to the post masters on how to mix their own "Red Composition" obliterating ink. Due to this reason, many colour variants of the cancellation mark exist. In some cases, the "diamond" in the middle was filled with ink (Beaconsfield and Ironbridge for example).

According to Stanley Gibbons stamp catalogue, there are a dozen known colours of the "Maltese Cross" used to cancel the "Penny Black" and "Two Pence Blue": red, black, blue, green, magenta/purple, ruby-red, violet, orange/vermilion, brown, pink, red and black, red and blue.
MICHEL stamp catalogue (Germany) lists additional colours used to cancel the "Two Pence Blue": magenta, ruby-red (Aberdeen), blue and brown (Haddington).

Colour and shape variants of the "Maltese Cross" (Mulready postal stationeries, posted in June and August 1840 respectively) Left – common cross shape, red-brown; right – red-orange, narrow inner cross and elongated diamond.

The red cancellation mark was usually very visible on both stamps and Mulready postal stationeries, but the ink made by post masters was relatively easy to remove from the "Penny Black" stamp. This was because the printing ink used for the stamps was more durable than the ink used for the "Maltese Cross" cancellations.

Matched pair of Penny Black (1840, SG: 2, black) and Penny Red (1841, SG: 7), plate No. 2, position QD. Maltese Cross is visible on both stamps. Perhaps, the color of the cancellation mark was stronger when applied, but faded with time.

Letter sheet with the Penny Red (1841, SG: 7), plate 9 (printed from the same plate used for the Penny Black), cancelled by the black Maltese Cross, posted on August 24th, 1841.

"Improved Security Envelope" franked with a Penny Red (1841, SG 7) from plate 12 — the first plate used exclusively for printing Penny Reds, posted in October 1841.

Maltese Cross obliterator with number inside (London 1843).

An example of Duplex cancellations from 1876. The stamp on the right is perforated "Penny Red" from 1864.

Some letter recipients were able to remove the cancel mark to reuse the stamp. Others even varnished new stamps with gelatine or other coatings to wipe off the cancel mark after use.

When the Post Office detected such cleaned and reused stamps, they struck them with special handstamps to identify the offence, such as “Old Stamp” or the two-ring “OS” (for “Old Stamp used”). More commonly, these stamps were annotated with phrases like “Obliterated stamp used”, “Stamp used before”, or simply “Old Stamp”.

To resolve the problem Rowland Hill with help of several famous chemists started to experiment with different colours of the stamp and ink for the cancelation mark, known as the "Rainbow Trials". Based on this research, he chose a particular black ink for the cancels, and a red ink for the stamp.

In August 1840, the London District Post, at Rowland Hill's request, conducted experiments with black ink of the cancelation mark.
These trials demonstrated that black ink provides a more permanent cancellation and it is more difficult to remove the ink without destroying the colour of the stamp.

In February 1841, together with the replacement of the "Penny Black" by the "Penny Red" stamp, the standard cancellation ink was officially changed to black in the entire country.
At the same time, following the request of Hill, the General Post Office adopted the practice of supplying ink to the postmasters, rather than sending them instructions on how to synthesize it. Every new batch of the black ink was tested before being distributed in tin bottles to the post offices.
However, some remote post offices continued to use red ink "Maltese Cross" after the date. Some covers with cancellation by red "Maltese Cross" are known even from July 1842.

Postal reform rendered the use of envelopes far more widespread, as their employment no longer influenced the postal rate. Shortly after the introduction of the Penny Black, a number of stationery manufacturers began producing envelopes described as "Improved Security Envelopes" (see example on the right).
The patent registration number and the name of the manufacturing firm were printed on the interior of the envelope and were visible only after opening, for example Mitchell & Son’s “Improved Security Envelope” (No. 483, registered November 1840).
These envelopes incorporated specific design features, including carefully positioned gum and distinctive flap geometries, which ensured that any attempt at steam-opening would leave clear and irreversible evidence. Once opened, the envelope could not be resealed without detection. Such security measures were intended to deter unauthorized access by domestic servants or postal employees, who might otherwise read correspondence without fear of discovery.
Beyond their practical function, envelopes had also acquired a symbolic value, and Improved Security Envelopes in particular conveyed a heightened level of confidentiality, often associated with official or governmental correspondence.

In March 1843 modified "Maltese Crosses" were introduced to the London Inland Office of the General Post Office. These new cancellation marks included a number (1-12) instead of the "diamond" in the middle. An additional cross was added on the top, with the exception of the one numbered “3”. These numbers, probably, are desk numbers in the post office. These numbered crosses are different not only by their numbers, but also by their shapes.

From May 1844, the Maltese Cross cancellation marks were gradually replaced in the post offices of Great Britain. New postal mark had barred numeral cancellation marks that gave a coded indication of the place of posting by showing a number specific to each post office. These numbers initially appeared in single numeral cancellations, and later in the "Duplex" cancellations which combined a date-stamp and the cancelation mark.
The reason for the replacement of the "Maltese Cross" with the "Duplex" was to make the work of postmasters more efficient. Before the introduction of the "Duplex", they were required to cancel every stamp on the letter with the cancellation mark, then add a postmark with the date and post office code on the reverse side (in some cases on the front side of the cover).
Rowland Hill proposed to use such a double cancellation in September, 1840. He said that it would take less time compared to the previous method. However, Hill’s proposal was rejected and the "Maltese Cross" cancellation remained in use until 1844.

For more details about "Maltese Crosses" please refer to the "Encyclopaedia of the Maltese Cross Cancellations of Great Britain and Ireland." by Rockoff & Jackson, volume 1, published by Hobbs the Printers Limited in 2006. ISBN: 0-9528274-3-3.

The Penny Red

Printing of the "Penny Red" stamps began on December 30^th, 1840, by using the seven plates used to print "Penny Black", plates: 1b, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11. They were officially released for sale on February 10^th, 1841.

The printing of the revised "Two Pence Blue" stamps began on February 27^th 1841, while a new plate (Plate 3) had to be prepared that incorporated a subtle design change: lines of shading were added below the word "POSTAGE" at the top, and above "TWO PENCE" at the bottom of the stamp. These lines were intended to make black cancellation marks more visible and thereby reduce the opportunity for reuse of the stamp. The new stamps were also printed in a slightly deeper shade of blue than earlier issues and were officially released for sale in March 1841.

Matched pair of Penny Black (1840, SG: 2, black) and Penny Red (1841, SG: 7), plate No. 8, position CE. Black Maltese Cross seen much better on the red stamp. Plate No. 8 was registered on July 31st, 1840, just before the London District Post began experimenting with black cancellation ink in August of that year, at the request of Rowland Hill.	Two Pence Blue stamp from 1841, plate No. 3 (SG: 14), a horizontal white line was added below word "POSTAGE" and above words "TWO PENCE" on the top and bottom sides of the stamp respectively.

To prevent their reuse the chemical prussiate of potash was added to the ink of the new stamps (Penny Red and Blue), to increase the indelible component of the carbon black ink of the Maltese cross cancellation.

Penny Red from 1841, plate No. 16, SG: 8.	The "Ivory Head" - Penny Red from 1841, worn plate No. 31, SG: 8
The watermark is usually visible on the reverse side of unused stamps with the naked eye, but it might be required to use UV or other artificial lights of watermark detector device to see it on used stamps, especially if the reverse side is bluish or contains cancellation ink. In some cases, the watermark is visible on both the front and reverse of the stamp. Sometimes, albino profile of the Queen can be seen on the bluish reverse side of the stamp (see an example above). The effect when the Queen's head shows white on the bluish reverse side of the stamp is known among philatelists as the "Ivory Head".

This ink reacted with the water in the dampened paper and caused the paper on the reverse side to become bluish (see an example on the right).
On January 28^th 1854, the first perforated "Penny Red" stamps were put on sale. Three days later perforated "Two Pence Blue" stamps followed. These stamps have perforation 16 (16 holes over 2cm length), but it was observed that the holes were too close together and the sheets fell apart under their own weight. Between 1855 and 1857 stamps were produced with perforation 14 and 16. At the end 1857 it was decided to continue to produce stamps with perforation 14 only.

The first trials to perforate stamps started in 1841, rough perforation, possibly made by a sewing machine. Three years later, first mechanical device for separating stamps was designed, but it perforated the stamps on one side only and was complicated to use.
In 1847, Irishman Henry Archer constructed his first machine that punched holes horizontally and vertically between rows of stamps. Next year, after some improvements, he patented his perforation machine. Perforation trials, on "Penny Red" and "Two Pence Blue", were conducted in 1849 and 1850 under the auspices of the Postal Office and stamps from these trials were first issued towards the end of 1850. In 1853, the Postal Office purchased Archer's machines and started to use them for production of the stamps.

"Penny Red" (1841) - successor of "Penny Black", MiNr: 3, Scott: 3, SG: 7, plate No. 11. Even light cancellation by black mark is good visible.	"Penny Red" (1854) - the first perforated stamp in the world, MiNr: 8, Scott: 8, SG: 194 plate No. 14. Shift of the letters on the bottom corners is good visible.	"Penny Red" (1864) - check numbers in the reverse order added on the top, MiNr: 16, Scott: 33, SG: 43 plate No. 90.

Even more than twenty years after the introduction of the first perforated stamp, the perforation technique was still not fully perfected. The Penny Red, plate No. 187, on a letter mailed in 1876 from the Geological Society of London to the British Museum, shows significant perforation misalignment.

Similar to "Penny Black" and "Two Pence Blue", "Penny Red" stamps exist in several colour variants, including rose-red, as shown above.
The watermark was changed on May 15^th, 1855 - the small crown was replaced by a larger and more ornate one.
On April 1^st, 1864, the stars-like designs on the top corners were replaced with the same check letters as used in the lower corners, but in reverse order (see example above). This modification was done in an attempt to prevent the fraudulent use of the uncancelled portions of two stamps which might otherwise be patched together and reused.

The alphabet of the check letters was changed with the time. The first time the alphabet was changed in 1852, then in 1855 and 1861 respectively. The letters of these alphabets have a different form (font), size and thickness.
It is clear to see, the check letters of "Penny Red" from 1864 look different from the letters of two other stamps on the images above.

The "Penny Red" became one of the main stamps of Great Britain over the next 37 years and it is probably the most common stamp in the world because about 21 billion stamps were produced between 1841 and 1879. Due to the wear, over 400 different plates were used to print the "Penny Red" during this period.
The rarest plate of "Penny Red" is the plate No. 77 (produced in 1863), from which it is believed that only one sheet of stamps was printed. According to Post Office records, printing plate 77 was rejected due to poor alignment which meant that some stamps were mis-perforated in production. Although the only sheet printed by plate 77 was meant to be destroyed, some stamps survived and might cost £500,000 today.

"PAID" handstamp on a cover posted from Glasgow to Dingwall in 1845. The slanted line on the right from the handstamp means 1d (One Penny) - the inland rate of letter with weight up to half-ounce (14g.).

1. Many philatelists like to plate their Penny stamps (assign them to one of the 11 plates). Plating of the Penny stamps is a big topic, not covered by this article. However, links to some Internet resources, books and YouTube videos dealing with plating were added to the References section below.

2. Mint (unused) stamps of Penny Black might cost a fortune, but used stamps in good condition are affordable. However, there are many forgeries, especially circulated covers with "Penny Black" and "Two Pence Blue" stamps on the market. To be on the safe side, it is recommended to buy these stamps from the serious dealers, members of Philatelic Traders Society (PTS).

The red "PAID" handstamp, used to mark the prepayment of the letter before introduction of the adhesive postage stamps (the "Penny Family") continued to be used until about 1853. An example of a letter posted from Glasgow in 1845 is on the right.
Since 1853, the General Post Office of Great Britain officially required all inland letters to be prepaid with postage stamps. This meant letters sent without stamps were either returned to the sender (if possible) or delivered with a penalty fee paid by the recipient.




One of the stamps Professor Richard Owen (at the time, Richard Owen had not been knighted yet) placed on the letter to Sir Henry Barkly, the Governor of Cape Colony and British High Commissioner for Southern Africa, in Cape Town in 1876, was a perforated "Penny Red".

Letter of Richard Owen sent to Sir Henry Barkly in 1876

The "Maltese Cross" cancellation mark was replaced by the "Duplex Cancellation" in the meantime.

In 1841, the same year the "Penny Red" replaced the "Penny Black", Professor Owen delivered his landmark presentation in Plymouth that laid the foundational concepts for the group, though he did not officially coin and publish the word "Dinosaurs" until the following year, in 1842. Professor Owen, knighted in 1883 by Queen Victoria, was the most famous naturalist in Great Britain at the time and was appointed as a science tutor for Queen Victoria’s children.

Owen is also the one who convinced Parliament to establish the Natural History Museum in London, as "a cathedral to nature", to display all "God's creations". The Natural History Museum in London was constructed under his supervision between 1873 and 1880.
Today the museum is particularly famous for its exhibition of dinosaur skeletons and ornate architecture—sometimes dubbed a cathedral of nature - both exemplified by the large Diplodocus cast that dominated the vaulted central hall before it was replaced in 2017 with the skeleton of a blue whale hanging from the ceiling.


FDC "150^th anniversary of Dinosaurs' identification by Sir Richard Owen", Great Britain 1991.

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